ARGUMENTATION THEORY

how people argue

History and Orientation

Argumentation exists from way before the 19^th century, where the Aristotle’s logical theory is found first. This indicates that argumentation was an important factor already in society. Until the 1950s, the approach of argumentation was based on rhetoric and logic. In the United States debating and argumentation became an important subject on universities and colleges. Textbooks appeared on ‘Principles of Argumentation’ (Pierce, 1895). In the 1960s and 1970s Perelman and Toulmin were the most influential writers on argumentation. Perelman tried to find a description of techniques of argumentation used by people to obtain the approval of others for their opinions. Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca called this ‘new rhetoric’. Toulmin, the other influential writer developed his theory (starting in 1950’s) in order to explain how argumentation occurs in the natural process of an everyday argument. He called his theory ‘the uses of argument’.

Argumentation theory cannot be seen as the theory for argumentation. Various authors have used the argumentation theory all in a slightly different way; it is not to say which version is the most developed.

Core Assumptions and Statements

‘Argumentation is a verbal and social activity of reason aimed at increasing (or decreasing) the acceptability of a controversial standpoint for the listener or reader, by putting forward a constellation of propositions intended to justify (or refute) the standpoint before a rational judge’ (Van Eemeren et al, 1996). Argumentation is a verbal activity, most often in an ordinary language. In argumentation people use words and sentences to argue, to state or to deny etc. Nonverbal communication is accompanied with verbal communication in argumentation and can play an important role. Furthermore, argumentation is a social activity, which in principle is directed to other people. Argumentation is also an activity of reason, when people put forward their arguments in argumentation they place their considerations within the realm of reason. Argumentation is always related to a standpoint. An opinion itself is not enough; arguments are needed when people differ on a standpoint. Finally, the goal of argumentation is to justify one’s standpoint or to refute someone else’s.

The version of Van Eemeren and Grootendorst of the argumentation theory, the pragma-dialectical theory, is currently most popular. They began to study argumentation as a means of resolving differences of opinion. Argumentation starts with four principles. 1) Externalization: Argumentation needs a standpoint and an opposition to the standpoint. Therefore, argumentation research concentrates on the externalizable commitments rather than the psychological elements of people. 2) Socialization: arguments are seen as an expression of people’s processes. Crucial is to validate the arguer’s position by arguments in a certain way. Two people try to obtain an agreement in argumentation; therefore argumentation is part of a social context rather than an individual context. 3) Functionalization: Argumentation has the general function of managing the resolution of disagreement. Studying of argumentation should concentrate on the function of argumentation in the verbal management of disagreement. 4) Dialectification: Argumentation is appropriate only when you are able to use arguments that are able to help you arguing against another person. For resolving differences a theory on argumentation should have a set of standards. The term dialectical procedure is mentioned as a depending element on efficient arguing on solving differences.

Van Eemeren and Grootendorst identify various stages of argumentative dialogue. 1) Confrontation: Presentation of the problem, such as a debate question or a political disagreement. 2) Opening: Agreement on rules, such as for example, how evidence is to be presented, which sources of facts are to be used, how to handle divergent interpretations, determination of closing conditions. 3) Argumentation: Application of logical principles according to the agreed-upon rules. 4) Concluding: When closing conditions are met. These could be for example, a time limitation or the determination of an arbiter. Note that these stages are indispensable.

Argumentation analysis of persuasive messages

Schellens uses a typology which differentiates between restricted and unrestricted argumentation schemes. Restricted schemes are limited to a certain conclusion. The group restricted argumentation schemes can be divided into three different parts 1) Regularity-based argumentation (Schellens, 1985: 77-102): used in support of a descriptive statement about the present, the past or the future. Argumentation is given for a proposition of a factual or descriptive nature on the basis of a regularly recurring empirical link. 2) Rule-based argumentation (Schellens, 1985: 115-151; see also Gottlieb 1968 on rule-guided reasoning: used in support of a normative statement about the value of a situation or process. Arguments are given for a statement of a normative nature 3) Pragmatic argumentation: leading to a statement about the desirability of intended behavior. A position on the desirability of a given action, behavior or measure is advocated on the basis of its advantages and/or disadvantages. (Schellens, 1985: 153-178; see also Walton 1996: 75-77).

In addition to these restricted argumentation schemes, Schellens also distinguishes three unrestricted forms; argumentation from authority, argumentation from example and argumentation from analogy. These schemas are not limited to a conclusion of a type, but have a wider application.

Conceptual Model

Toulmin uses a model of argumentation for his ‘uses for argument’. See: Toulmin, S. The Uses of Argument(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958).

Favorite Methods

Observation, content/argument analysis.

Scope and Application

Argumentation theory is an interdisciplinary field which attracts attention from philosophers, logicians, linguists, legal scholars, speech communication theorists, etc. The theory is grounded in conversational, interpersonal communication, but also applies to group communication and written communication. De Jong & Schellens (2004) illustrate the possibilities of argumentation analysis in the context of public information.