THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Lasswell Model Theory
One of the first theorist of mass communications and the most famous was Harold Lasswell, in a classic article in 1948 put forward a simple model of communication and often dikutif lot of people are: Who is (Who), mute (Says what), in which the channel (in the which channel), to whom (to Whom) and what kind of effect (what effect That) (Littlejhon, 1996).

2. Two-stage theory of communication and interpersonal influences
This theory originated from research results of Paul Lazarsfeld et al on the effects of mass media in election campaigns in 1940. This study was conducted with the assumption that the process works in generating stimulus effects of mass media. However, the results showed otherwise. Mass media effects were low and the assumption of stimulus response does not adequately describe the reality of the mass media audience in the dissemination of information flows and determine public opinion.

3. Information or Mathematical Theory
One of the classic communication theory that greatly affects the subsequent communication theories are information theory or mathematical theory. This theory is a form of elaboration of the work of Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949, Weaver. 1949 b), Mathematical Theory of Communication.These theories view communication as mechanistic phenomena, mathematical, and informative: communication as the transmission of messages and how to use the transmitter channels and communication media. This is one vivid example of the schools of the process which saw the code as a means for constructing messages and translate (encoding and decoding). The point of concern lies in the accuracy and efficiency of the process. The process in question is a personal communication that is how it affects the behavior or state of mind of another person. If the effects do not correspond with what is expected, then this school tend to talk about failures of communication. He looked into the stages of communication to tell where the failures. In addition, schools also tend to use the process of the social sciences, particularly psychology and sociology, and tend to concentrate themselves in acts of communication.Shannon and Weaver's work is then improved a lot after World War II at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the United States itself is considering Shannon insiyiur there is an interest in the delivery of the message carefully over the phone. Shannon Weaver then developed this concept to be applied to all forms of communication. The main point of the study is how to determine the manner in which the channel (channel) of communication used very efficiently. According to them, the main channel of communication in question is the telephone wires and radio waves.Background of engineering and mathematical expertise Shannon and Weaver is evident in their emphasis. For example, in a telephone system, the most important factor in successful communication is not on the message or the meaning conveyed, as in the school of semiotics, but rather on how many dams received signal transmission process.
Explanation of Information Theory In Epistemology, Ontology and Axiology
Information theory focuses attention on a number of signal points passing through channels or media in the communication process. This is very useful in the application of electrical systems today are designed transmitter, receiver, and code to facilitate the efficiency of information.

4. Hope Value Theory (The Expectacy-Value Theory)Phillip Palmgreen trying to overcome a lack of attachment element is in the uses and gratification theory by creating a theory he called expectance-value theory (the theory of expectation values).In the framework of this theory, the satisfaction that you are looking for from the media is determined by your attitude toward the media - your beliefs about what a medium can provide to you and your evaluation of the material. For example, if you believe that the situated comedy (sitcoms), such as Bajaj Bajuri provide entertainment and you are glad to be entertained, you'll find satisfaction with your entertainment needs by watching sitcoms. If, on the other hand, you believe that sitcoms presents an unrealistic view of life and you do not like things like this you will avoid to see it.
5. Dependency Theory (Dependency Theory)The theory of dependence on media initially expressed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin Defleur. As uses and gratifications theory, this approach also rejects the initial assumption of a causal hypothesis reinforcement. To overcome this weakness, this author takes a systems approach even further. Within their model they propose a relationship that is integral to the listeners, the media. and the larger social system.In line with what the uses and gratifications theory, the theory predicts that the audience depends on the information derived from the mass media in order to meet the needs of relevant audiences and achieve specific goals of the process of mass media consumption. However, it should be underlined that the audience does not have the same dependence on all media.The second source of dependency is a social condition. This model shows the system's media and social institutions interact with the audience in creating the needs and interests. In turn this will influence the audience to choose a variety of media, so instead of mass media sources that create dependency, but social conditions.To measure the effects of mass media on audiences, there are several methods that can be used, namely experimental research, survey and ethnographic research.

Research ExperimentExperimental research (experimental research) is an examination of media effects under controlled conditions carefully. Although studies that use experimental research does not represent the overall statistics, but at least it can be anticipated by dividing objects into two types of research that are in different conditions.The most influential research experiments conducted by Albert Bandura and his colleagues at Stanford University in 1965. They investigated the effects of violence posed by the impressions of a short film on children. They divided the children into three groups and provide a Bobo doll Doll, a doll made of plastic, in every room. The first group saw the impressions that contains repeated scenes of violence, the second group saw only briefly and the third group did not see at all.It turned out that after watching, the first group tend to be more aggressive by doing acts of vandalism against the Bobo doll Doll in comparison with the second and third groups. This proves that the media has a role to form the character of his audience.The weakness of this method is related to the generalization of research results, because the samples studied very little, so often the question arises about the level of his ability to be applied in real life (generalizability). The downside is then often diusahan to be minimized by creating the conditions which made similar as possible to conditions in the real world or commonly known as the ecological validity Straubhaar and Larose, 1997: 415).
SurveySurvey method is very popular today, especially their emergence as a basic method to be used in the poll of public opinion. Survey method has more ability in the generalization of research results rather than experimental research because the sample is more representative of the larger population. In addition, surveys may reveal more factors than the experimental manipulation, such as the prohibition to watch on television impressions of sexual violence and religious factors. It is made clear by the following examples.
Research EthnografiEthnographic research (ethnografic research) to try to see the effects of media much more naturally in a particular time and place. This method is derived from the anthropological view of mass media and audiences as a whole (holistic), so of course it takes a relatively long time in research applications.


6. Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda-setting was introduced by McCombs and DL Shaw (1972). The assumption of this theory is that if the media put pressure on an event, then the media will influence the audience to consider it important. So what is considered an important media, it is important also for the community. In this case the medium is assumed to have a very strong effect, especially since this assumption relates to the learning process rather than by changes in attitudes and opinions.
7. Dependency Theory of Mass Communication Effects
This theory was developed by Sandra Ball-Rokeachdan Melvin L. DeFluer (1976), which focuses on the structural condition of a society that governs the likelihood of an effect of mass media. This theory departs from the nature of modern society, mass media diamana considered as an information system that has an important role in the process of maintaining, changing, and conflicts at the community level, groups, and individuals in social activities. In summary study of the effect can be formulated can be formulated as follows:
1. Cognitive, create or eliminate ambiguity, attitude formation, agenda-setting, the expansion of public confidence in the system, confirmation / explanation of the values.
2. Affective, create fear or anxiety, and raise or lower the moral support.3. Behavioral, activate or move or relieve, the formation of a specific issue or settlement, or provide a strategy for reaching an activity and lead to generous behavior.

8. Uses and Gratifications Theory (Purpose and Satisfaction)
This theory was first introduced by Herbert Blumer and Elihu Katz (1974). This theory says that media users play an active role in selecting and using media. In other words, the user media is an active party in the communication process. Media users seeking the best media sources in memenhi business needs. This means that users have the option of alternative media to satisfy their needs.
The basic elements underlying this theoretical approach (Karl in Bungin, 2007): (1) certain basic needs, in interaction with (2) various combinations of intra and extra-individual, and also with (3) the structure of society, including the structure of the media, generating (4) various personal mix of individuals, and (5) perception of the solution to the problem, which results in (6) a variety of motives to seek fulfillment or settlement issue, which has resulted in (7) differences in patterns of media consumption and (other differences in behavior patterns, which causes (9) differences in consumption patterns, which may affect (10) a combination of intra and extra individual characteristics, as well as affect the well (11) structure of the media and various political structures, cultural, and economic development in society.

9. The Spiral of Silence Theory
The theory of the spiral of silence (the spiral of silence) presented by Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann (1976), deals with the question how the formation of public opinion. This theory explains that the formation of public opinion is determined by a process of interplay between mass communication, interpersonal communication, and perceptions of individuals about their opinions in connection with the opinions of others in society.

10. The theory of social construction of mass media
The initial idea of ​​this theory is to mengoreki theory of social construction of reality that was built by Peter L and Thomas Luckmann Berrger (1966, The social construction of reality. A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Tafseer of the top social reality: a treatise on knowledge sosisologi) . They write about the social construction of social reality constructed simultaneously through three processes, namely externalization, objectivization, and internalization. These simultaneous processes between individuals with one another within the community. Building the reality created by the social process is objective, subjective, and symbolic or intersubjective.

11. Innovation Diffusion Theory
Diffusion of the most prominent theory put forward by Everett Rogers and his colleagues. Rogers presents an interesting deksripsi about the spread of the process of social change, which consists of the invention, diffusion (or communication), and consequences. Changes such as the above can occur internally from within the group or externally through contact with change agents from the outside world. Contact may occur spontaneously or from an accident, or the result of the plan part of the agents out in the time variable, can be short, but it often takes a long time.In the diffusion of this innovation, one idea may take years to be scattered. Rogers stated that the realization of the goals of diffusion research is to find the means to shorten this delay. Once established, an innovation will have consequences consequences - maybe they work or not, directly or indirectly, real or latent (Rogers in Littlejohn, 1996: 336).
12. Cultivation Theory

Other theoretical research programs related to the socio-cultural mass communication conducted Garbner George and his friends. These researchers believe that because television is the shared experience of all people, and has the effect of giving the street with view of the world. Television is an integral part of our everyday lives. His plays, advertising, news, and other events bring a relatively coherent world of general impression and send a message to every home. Television predisposition to process from the beginning of the birth of the same and the usual choice obtained from other primary sources. History of hereditary barriers of literacy and mobility resolved by the presence of television. Television has become the primary common source of socialization and everyday information (mostly in the form of entertainment) from the other heterogeneous populations. Repeating patterns of messages and impressions from television, mass produced form the mainstream of public symbolic environment.
Garbner called this process as cultivation (cultivation), because television is believed to act as an agent penghomogen in culture. Cultivation theory is very prominent in the assessment of the impact of television on the audience. For Gerbner, compared to other mass media, television has gained such a significant place in everyday life that dominates the "symbolic environment" we, by replacing the message about the reality of personal experience and the means of knowing the world (McQuail, 1996: 254)

References:
* Fisher, B. Aubrey, 1986, Theories of Communication. Editor: Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Translator: Soejono Trimo. London: Youth Rosdakarya.
* Mulyana, Dedy, 2001, Qualitative Research Methodology (New Paradigm Communications and Other Social Studies). London: Youth Rosdakarya.